An Overview of Stratospheric Ozone and Climate Effects

M.M. Karadan

Centre for Ocean Atmospheric Science and Technology, Amity University Rajasthan, Kant Kalwar, Jaipur, Rajasthan, 303002, India

P.V.S. Raju

Centre for Ocean Atmospheric Science and Technology, Amity University Rajasthan, Kant Kalwar, Jaipur, Rajasthan, 303002, India

P.C.S. Devara

Centre of Excellence in Ocean-Atmospheric Science and Technology & Environmental Science and Health, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram, Haryana, 122413, India

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36956/eps.v1i2.782

Received: 30 November 2022; Revised: 14 February 2023; Accepted: 28 February 2023; Published Online: 9 March 2023

Copyright © 2022 Authors(s). Published by Nan Yang Academy of Sciences Pte. Ltd.

Creative Commons LicenseThis is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.


Abstract

Anthropogenic Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) compelled stratospheric ozone reduction is one of the significant global environmental issues of this era. Ozone acts as a life saviour in the stratosphere whereas the same plays a role as a secondary air pollutant at tropospheric levels. This review encompasses studies involving the science of ozone destruction with an emphasis on chemical processes involved, minimum ozone features, ozone hole area characteristics, various Ozone Depleting Substances (ODSs), consequences of reduced stratospheric ozone levels, and the different executed international commitments to restrain ozone depletion. It has been perceived that the decrease in stratospheric ozone volume gives away extensively to climate change such as through ozone chemistry fluctuations of polar annular modes and its Greenhouse Gas (GHG) features. Different international ozone layer protection agreements have been performing a major role in limiting stratospheric ozone depletion thereby its adverse effects, and specifically Montreal protocol has been a great success to this point.

Keywords: Ozone layer depletion, Greenhouse gases, Chlorofluorocarbons, Ozone depleting substances, Montreal protocol


References

[1] Langematz, U., 2019. Stratospheric ozone: Down and up through the anthropocene. ChemTexts. 5(8). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-019-0082-7

[2] Mani, A., Sreedharan, C.R., 1973. Studies of variations in the vertical ozone profiles over India. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 106, 1180-1191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00881070

[3] Sreedharan, C.R., Mani, A., 1973. Ozone and temperature changes in the lower stratosphere. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 106, 1576-1580. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00881106

[4] Mani, A., Sreedharan, C.R., Joseph, P.V., et al., 1973. Studies of the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone in association with western disturbances over India. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 106, 1192-1199. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00881071

[5] World Meteorological Organization, 2006. World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project-Report No. 50 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration United Nations Environment Programme World Meteorological Organization European Commission. Available from: https://library.wmo.int/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=6414#.ZAcvy3ZBxPY

[6] Wang, W.Ch., Tanaka, H., 2009. Tropospheric ozone climate-chemistry interaction: Aspects of climate changes. Twenty Years of Ozone Decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 291-295.

[7] Chipperfield, M.P., 2018. On the cause of recent variations in lower stratospheric ozone. Geophysical Research Letters. 45, 5718-5726. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL078071

[8] McKenzie, R.L., 2011. Ozone depletion and climate change: Impacts on UV radiation. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences. 10, 182-198. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/c0pp90034f

[9] Vingarzan, R., 2004. A review of surface ozone background levels and trends. Atmospheric Environment. 38, 3431-3442. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.03.030

[10] Manney, G.L., 2020. Record-low arctic stratospheric ozone in 2020: MLS observations of chemical processes and comparisons with previous extreme winters. Geophysical Research Letters. 47(16). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089063

[11] Díaz, J., Ortiz, C., Falcón, I., et al., 2018. Short-term effect of tropospheric ozone on daily mortality in Spain. Atmospheric Environment. 187, 107-116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.05.059

[12] Monks, P.S., 2015. Tropospheric ozone and its precursors from the urban to the global scale from air quality to short-lived climate forcer. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 15, 8889-8973. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-8889-2015

[13] Gao, Y., Fu, J.S., Drake, J.B., et al., 2013. The impact of emission and climate change on ozone in the United States under representative concentration pathways (RCPs). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 13, 9607-9621. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-9607-2013

[14] Mills, G., 2018. Tropospheric ozone assessment report: Present-day tropospheric ozone distribution and trends relevant to vegetation. Elementa. 6(47). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.302

[15] Cooper, O.R., 2014. Global distribution and trends of tropospheric ozone: An observation-based review. Elementa. 2, 000029. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12952/journal.elementa.000029

[16] Granier, C., 2011. Evolution of anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of air pollutants at global and regional scales during the 1980-2010 period. Climate Change. 109, 163-190. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0154-1

[17] Zhang, Y., 2016. Tropospheric ozone change from 1980 to 2010 dominated by equatorward redistribution of emissions. Nature Geoscience. 9, 875-879. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2827

[18] Mills, G., Wagg, S., Harmens, H., 2013. Ozone pollution: Impacts on ecosystem services and biodiversity. ICP Vegetation Programme Coordination Centre: UK. Available from: http://icpvegetation.ceh.ac.uk

[19] Ainsworth, E.A., Yendrek, C.R., Sitch, S., et al., 2012. The effects of tropospheric ozone on net primary productivity and implications for climate change. Annual Review of Plant Biology. 63, 637- 661. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103829

[20] Mills, G., Harmens, H., 2011. Ozone pollution: Report Prepared by the Icp Vegetation Ozone Pollution: A Hidden Threat to Food Security [Internet]. Available from: http://icpvegetation.ceh.ac.uk

[21] Sun, G., 2012. Interactive influences of ozone and climate on streamflow of forested watersheds. Global Change Biology. 18, 3395-3409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02787.x

[22] Fumagalli, I., Gimeno, B.S., Velissariou, D., et al., 2001. Evidence of ozone-induced adverse effects on crops in the Mediterranean region. Atmospheric Environment. 35(14), 2583-2587. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2008.09.001

[23] Bojkov Rumen, D., Balis, D.S., 2009. The history of total ozone measurements: The early search for signs of a trend and an update. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 73-110.

[24] Sreedharan, C.U., 1968. An Indian electrochemical ozonesonde. Journal of Scientific Instruments. 1(10), 995-997. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3735/1/10/305

[25] Kerr, J.B., 1994. The 1991 WMO international ozonesonde intercomparison at Vanscoy, Canada. Atmosphere Ocean. 32, 685-716. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07055900.1994.9649518

[26] Hofmann, D.J., 2009. International balloon measurements for ozone research. Twenty Years of Ozone Decline. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 157-172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_11

[27] Wazir, M., 2011. Estimation of regional stratospheric ozone concerning Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Meteorology. 7, 14.

[28] Köhler, U., 2017. Optical characterization of three reference Dobsons in the ATMOZ project - Verification of G. M. B. Dobson’s original specifications. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 11, 1989-1999. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-11-1989-2018

[29] Nichol, S.E., 2018. Past, present and future. Weather Climate and Society. 38, 16-27.

[30] Komhyr, W.D., Mateer, C.L., Hudson, R.D., 1993. Effective Bass-Paur 1985 ozone absorption coefficients for use with Dobson ozone spectrophotometers. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 98, 20451-20465. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/93JD00602

[31] Bass, A.M., Paur, R.J., 1985. The ultraviolet cross-sections of ozone: I. the measurements. Atmospheric Ozone. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 606-610. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5313-0_120

[32] Basher, R.E., 1985. Review of the Dobson Spectrophotometer and its accuracy. Atmospheric ozone. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 387-391. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-5313-0_78

[33] Hendrick, F., 2011. NDACC/SAOZ UV-visible total ozone measurements: Improved retrieval and comparison with correlative ground-based and satellite observations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 11, 5975-5995. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-5975-2011

[34] Govindan, S.S., Ariffin, M., Yik, D.J., et al., 2011. Characteristics and variability of total ozone concentration over Petaling Jaya, Malaysia using the brewer ozone spectrophotometer. World Climate Research Program—Open Science. 11(7), 746.

[35] Scarnato, B., Staehelin, J., Stübi, R., et al., 2010. Long-term total ozone observations at Arosa (Switzerland) with Dobson and Brewer instruments (1988-2007). Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres. 115(D13). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011908

[36] Pommereau, J.P., Goutaft, F., 1988. O3 and NO2 ground-based measurements by visible spectrometry during Arctic winter and spring. Geophysical Research Letters. 15(8), 891-894. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/GL015i008p00891

[37] Kuttippurath, J., 2013. Antarctic ozone loss in 1979- 2010: First sign of ozone recovery. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 13, 1625-1635. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-1625-2013

[38] Kuttippurath, J., Kumar, P., Nair, P.J., et al., 2018. Accuracy of satellite total column ozone measurements in polar vortex conditions: Comparison with ground-based observations in 1979-2013. Remote Sensing Environment. 209, 648-659. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.02.054

[39] Hendrick, F., 2011. NDACC/SAOZ UV-visible total ozone measurements: Improved retrieval and comparison with correlative ground-based and satellite observations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 11, 5975-5995. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-5975-2011

[40] Richter, A., Burrows, J., Nüss, H., et al., 2005. Increase in tropospheric nitrogen dioxide over China observed from space. Nature. 437, 129-132. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04092

[41] Bhartia, P.K., 2009. Role of satellite measurements in the discovery of stratospheric ozone depletion. Twenty Years of Ozone Decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 183-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_13

[42] Kurylo, M.J., 2009. The role of airborne science in the study of polar ozone. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 173-182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_12

[43] Thompson, A.M., 2009. An overview of strategic ozone sounding networks: Insights into ozone Budgets, UT/LS processes and tropical climate signatures. Twenty Years of Ozone Decline. p. 237- 249. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_17

[44] Bates, D.R., Nicolet, M., 1950. The photochemistry of atmospheric water vapor. Journal of Geophysical Research. 55, 301-327. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/JZ055i003p00301

[45] Subbaraya, B.H., 1994. Variability in the vertical distribution of ozone measured over Thumba during the 1990 DYANA campaign. Journal of Armospheric and Terresrnol Physics. 56(13-14), 1915-1922. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9169(94)90018-3

[46] Newman, P.A., Nash, E.R., Douglass, A.R., et al., 2007. Estimating when the Antarctic ozone hole will recover. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 191-200. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_14

[47] Harris, N.R.P., 2009. The long history of ozone: Analyses of recent measurements. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 111-117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_8

[48] Schoeberl Mark, R., Rodriguez, J.M., 2009. The rise and fall of dynamical theories of the ozone hole. Twenty Years of Ozone Decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 263-272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_19

[49] Solomon, S., Kinnison, D., Bandoro, J., et al., 2015. Simulation of polar ozone depletion: An update. Journal of Geophysical Research. 120, 7958-7974. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023365

[50] Wang, S., 2019. Direct detection of atmospheric atomic bromine leading to mercury and ozone depletion. Earth Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences. 116(29), 14479-14484. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1900613116

[51] Bodeker, G.E., Shiona, H., Eskes, H., 2005. Indicators of antarctic ozone depletion. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 5, 2603-2615. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-2603-2005

[52] Brenna, H., Kutterolf, S., Krüger, K., 2019. Global ozone depletion and increase of UV radiation caused by pre-industrial tropical volcanic eruptions. Scientific Reports. 9, 9435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-45630-0

[53] Previdi, M., Polvani, L.M., 2014. Climate system response to stratospheric ozone depletion and recovery. Quraterly Journal of Royal Meteorol Society. 140, 2401-2419. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2330

[54] Kang, S.M., Polvani, L.M., Fyfe, J.C., et al., 2011. Impact of polar ozone depletion on subtropical precipitation. Science. 332, 951. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1202131

[55] Simpson, W.R., Von Glasow, R., Riedel, K., et al., 2007. Halogens and their role in polar boundary-layer ozone depletion. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 7(16), 4375-4418. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-4375-2007

[56] World Meteorological Organization United States, 2018. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, United Nations Environment Programme & European Commission. Scientific assessment of ozone depletion. Available from: https://library.wmo.int/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=20763#.ZAcwNXZBxPY

[57] Wohltmann, I., 2020. Near-complete local reduction of arctic stratospheric ozone by severe chemical loss in spring 2020. Geophysical Research Letters. 47(20), e2020GL089547. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089547

[58] Douglass, A.R., 2009. Global observations—The key to model development and improved assessments. Twenty Years of Ozone Decline. Springer: Berlin. pp. 251-259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_18

[59] Zhu, Y., 2018. Stratospheric aerosols, polar stratospheric clouds, and polar ozone depletion after the mount calbuco eruption in 2015. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmosheres. 123, 12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD028974

[60] Eric Klobas, J., Wilmouth, D.M., Weisenstein, D.K., et al., 2017. Ozone depletion following future volcanic eruptions. Geophysical Research Letters. 44(14), 7490-7499. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL073972

[61] Tilmes, S., Müller, R., Salawitch, R., 2008. The sensitivity of polar ozone depletion to proposed geoengineering schemes. Science. 320, 1201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1153966

[62] Sonabawne, S.M., Devara, P.C.S., Rahul, P.R.C., et al., 2021. Transient variations in en route southern Indian ocean aerosols, Antarctic ozone climate and its relationship with HOx and NOx. Climate variability of southern high latitude regions. CRC Press: Boca Raton.

[63] Sonabawne, S.M., Devara, P.C.S., Meena, G.S., et al., 2021. Multiyear Measurements of Black Carbon Aerosols and Solar Radiation over Himadri, NyAlesund: Effects on Arctic Climate [Internet]. Understanding Arctic Environment: An Integrated Approach From Climate Change Perspective. Available from: http://www.essp.org/joint-projects/food/

[64] Crutzen, P.J., 2006. The anthropocene, earth system science in the anthropocene. Global Environmental Change and Food Systems GECAFS: A new interdisciplinary research project. Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 13-18.

[65] Overland, J.E., Wang, M., 2010. Large-scale atmospheric circulation changes are associated with the recent loss of Arctic sea ice. Tellus Ser A Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography. 62, 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0870.2009.00421.x

[66] Francis, J.A., Vavrus, S.J., 2012. Evidence linking Arctic amplification to extreme weather in midlatitudes. Geophysical Research Letters. 39(6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL051000

[67] Denton, M.H., 2018. Northern hemisphere stratospheric ozone depletion caused by solar proton events: The role of the polar vortex. Geophysical Research Letters. 45, 2115-2124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075966

[68] Zuev, V.V., Savelieva, E., 2019. The role of the polar vortex strength during winter in Arctic ozone depletion from late winter to spring. Polar Science. 22,100469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2019.06.001

[69] Pommereau, J.P., 2018. Recent Arctic ozone depletion: Is there an impact of climate change? Comptes Rendus Geoscience. 350, 347-353. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2018.07.009

[70] Damiani, A., 2020. Connection between antarctic ozone and climate: Interannual precipitation changes in the southern hemisphere. Atmosphere (Basel). 11(6), 579. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060579

[71] Fogt, R.L., Marshall, G.J., 2020. The southern annular mode: Variability, trends, and climate impacts across the Southern Hemisphere. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 11(4), e652. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.652

[72] Krasouski, A., Zenchanka, S., 2018. Ozone layer depletion, climate change, risks and adaptation. Theory and practice of climate adaptation. Springer: Cham. pp. 137-150.

[73] Seckmeyer, G., Smolskaia, I., Pissulla, D., et al., 2009. Solar UV: Measurements and Trends. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 359-368.

[74] Abas, N., 2018. Natural and synthetic refrigerants, global warming: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 90, 557-569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.099

[75] Geller Marvin, A., Chanin, M.L., 2009. SPARC science supporting the montreal protocol. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 393-403. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_30

[76] Bais, A.F., 2018. Environmental effects of ozone depletion, UV radiation and interactions with climate change: UNEP environmental effects assessment panel. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences. 17, 127-179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C7PP90043K

[77] Bernhard, G.H., 2020. Environmental effects of stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation and interactions with climate change: UNEP environmental effects assessment panel, update 2019. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences. 19, 542-584. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0PP90011G

[78] Son, S.W., 2018. Tropospheric jet response to Antarctic ozone depletion: An update with Chemistry-Climate Model Initiative (CCMI) models. Environmental Research Letters. 13, 054024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabf21

[79] Xie, F., 2018. An advanced impact of Arctic stratospheric ozone changes on spring precipitation in China. Climate Dynamics. 51, 4029-4041. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4402-1

[80] Wuebbles Donald, J., 2009. Metrics for ozone and climate: Three-dimensional modeling studies of ozone depletion potentials and indirect global warming potentials. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 297-326. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_23

[81] Olsen, C.M., 2015. Cancers in Australia attributable to exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation and prevented by regular sunscreen use. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. 39, 471-476. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12470

[82] Bais, A.F., 2015. Ozone depletion and climate change: Impacts on UV radiation. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences. 14, 19-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/c4pp90032d

[83] Hayes, F., Sharps, K., Harmens, H., et al., 2020. Tropospheric ozone pollution reduces the yield of African crops. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 206, 214-228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12376

[84] Isaksen Ivar, S.A., Rognerud, B., 2009. Stratospheric ozone depletion and tropospheric chemistry. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 279-290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_21

[85] Diffey, B.A., 2007. A contemporary strategy for sun exposure. Expert Review of Dermatology. 2, 139-142. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1586/17469872.2.2.139

[86] Anwar, F., Chaudhry, F.N., Nazeer, S., et al., 2016. Causes of ozone layer depletion and its effects on human: Review. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences. 6, 129-134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/acs.2016.61011

[87] UNEP Environmental Effects Panel, 1994. United Nations Environment Programme. Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion: 1994 Assessment: Pursuant to Article 6 of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer [Internet]. Available from: https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/29033

[88] Norval, M., 2011. The human health effects of ozone depletion and interactions with climate change. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences. 10, 199-225. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/c0pp90044c

[89] Pearce, M.S., 2003. Skin cancer in children and young adults: 28 years’ experience from the Northern Region Young Person’s Malignant Disease Registry, UK. Melanoma Research. 13, 421-426.

[90] Wargent, J.J., Jordan, B.R., 2013. From ozone depletion to agriculture: Understanding the role of UV radiation in sustainable crop production. New Phytologist. 197, 1058-1076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12132

[91] Reddy, T.S., 2011. Ozone layer depletion and its effects: A review. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development. 2(1), 30-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7763/IJESD.2011.V2.93

[92] Li, F., Newman, P., Pawson, S., et al., 2018. Effects of greenhouse gas increase and stratospheric ozone depletion on stratospheric mean age of air in 1960- 2010. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres. 123, 2098-2110. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027562

[93] Godin Beekmann, S., 2009. International multiinstruments ground-based networks: Recent developments within the network for the detection of atmospheric composition changes. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 135-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_10

[94] Yoshida, O., 2019. The international legal régime for the protection of the stratospheric ozone layer, second revised edition. Kluwer Law International: Netherlands.

[95] Albrecht, F., Parker, C.F., 2019. Healing the Ozone Layer: The montreal protocol and the lessons and limits of a global governance success story. Hart, p., Compton, M. (editors), Great policy successes. Oxford Academic: Oxford. pp. 304-322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198843719.003.0016

[96] Rowland, F.S., 2006. Stratospheric ozone depletion. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361, 769-790. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2005.1783

[97] Strahan, S.E., Douglass, A.R., 2018. Decline in antarctic ozone depletion and lower stratospheric chlorine determined from aura microwave limb sounder observations. Geophysical Research Letters. 45, 382-390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074830

[98] Ravishankara, A., 2009. Findings from the 2006 ozone scientific assessment for the montreal protocol. Twenty years of ozone decline. Springer: Dordrecht. pp. 387-391. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2469-5_29

[99] Fow, A.J., 2006. Ozone Depletion and Global Warming [Master’s thesis]. Hamilton: University of Waikato.

[100] Polvani, L.M., Previdi, M., England, M.R., et al., 2020. Substantial twentieth-century Arctic warming caused by ozone-depleting substances. Nature Climate Change. 10, 130-133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0677-4

[101] Montzka, S.A., Reimann, S., Engel, A., et al., 2011. Ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) and related chemicals. Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion. 52, 1-112.

[102] Fang, X., 2019. Challenges for the recovery of the ozone layer. Nature Geoscience. 12, 592-596. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0422-7

[103] Bolaji, B.O., Huan, Z., 2013. Ozone depletion and global warming: Case for the use of natural refrigerant - A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 18, 49-54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.008

[104] Fu, Q., Solomon, S., Pahlavan, H.A., et al., 2019. Observed changes in Brewer-Dobson circulation for 1980-2018. Environmental Research Letters. 14, 114026. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4de7